Bruce Rocheleau. Wildlife Politics. Cambridge University Press, 2017. www.cambridge.org/9781107187306
Chapter descriptions:
Chapter 1 provides An Introduction to Wildlife Politics. It gives a broad overview of wildlife conservation policy. It discusses key variables that constrain wildlife policy and politics such as habitat size and richness, human populations and development. Any attempt to deal preserve wildlife must deal with these forces. Secondly, it points out how human customs, attitudes and values affect wildlife policy. Third, the adaptability of species (and their attractiveness to humans) affects their ability to cope with a human-dominated world. Fourth, technology’s impact on wildlife is discussed both negative (e.g., development of hunting-fishing technology) as well as some emerging technologies (e.g., ability to drones to detect poaching) that may be helpful in the future. The growth of worldwide markets for wildlife is another basic development which threatens wildlife. Wildlife conservation involves international politics not only because many species cross national lines but due to trade and illegal trafficking of wildlife and international treaties and organizations are attempting to deal with these threats raised by humans and markets. Chapter 1 proceeds to discuss conceptual frameworks that are useful for understanding wildlife politics. First, there are “time factors” such as policy cycles, media attention, and the occurrence of disasters that influence attention (and sometimes indifference) to wildlife issues. Second, market incentives are now being explored as a method to assist wildlife conservation such as programs employing “Payments for Environmental Services” though they must cope with global market forces that run counter to wildlife preservation. A third framework concerns studies of policy implementation due to the fact that research shows that the passage of laws often do not lead to the change desired—they are many “paper laws.” A fourth set of concepts involves interest groups and related concepts such as “subgovernments” that are influential in wildlife policymaking both in advanced and developing countries. These groups and institutional forces can overwhelm even powerful executives who want to preserve wildlife. Fifth, the advocacy coalition framework provides useful understanding of the dynamics within coalitions and between opposing coalitions in the wildlife conservation arena. Sixth, organizational theory is useful to understand the behaviors of organizations like the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The Forest Service, and Bureau of Land Management which have limited resources and must deal with powerful constituencies that are at loggerheads with each other. Seventh, it is important to understand Federalism which structures not only the U.S. conservation policymaking but that of many other countries because interest groups dominate subgovernmental institutions (e.g., wildlife policymaking bodies in states in the U.S., provinces in Canada). Eighth, the courts are especially important in countries like the U.S. where they have sometimes taken over wildlife management but also play a role even in countries like China where they are responsible for punishing individuals and organizations that violate wildlife laws. Ninth, elections and science are the forces that can lead to change in wildlife policies—many important national laws and international treaties purport to rely on the “best science available” and thus learning from science can bring about change.
Chapter 2 concerns Science and the Protection of Wildlife. It focuses on the role of science in wildlife conservation policymaking.
Many national (e.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) and international (e.g., CITES, international whaling commission) bodies purport to follow the “best science available” in making their decisions. I discuss how practitioner groups such as the fishing industry and hunters often dispute the validity of scientific knowledge concerning threats to endangered species and how the movement to “stakeholder” decision-making demands that local, practitioner knowledge be given weight. I also provide accounts of disputes between scientific researchers that can result from differing methods and assumptions such as the impact of wolves and grizzlies on game species. Furthermore, I document how values held by policymakers influence research results such as the area (e.g., how wide should be the area in which endangered species are protected) and the length of time and degree of confidence that should be required in determining the minimum desired populations of endangered species. I discuss disputes over science that occur within the conservation coalition such as between “new” and traditional wildlife conservationists. I illustrate how uncertainty due to lack of complete data often exist about many species which forces policymakers to search for non-empirical decision rules such as “err on the side of caution” when making decisions that could lead to the extinction of species. The chapter also discusses the complexity of science and how multiple causes are often at work over issues in dispute (e.g., the impact of predators on reducing game or the benefits of preserving apex predators) and policymakers often focus on a single cause due to its political popularity (e.g., blaming predators for reduction in game numbers rather than other causes such as development, road-building, climate change, etc.) Cases are discussed in which researchers employ sophisticated models and projections that are based on assumptions and consequently conflicting conclusions are reached by different researchers. Peer review is supposed to be the “sine quo non” that distinguishes true science but the chapter provides examples of how anonymous peer review is difficult to employ due to the small universe of experts on specific species. The chapter illustrates cases in which opposing sides often characterize each other’s research as “junk science.” It also provides case studies of the difficult role scientists play when they try to influence policymaking—they must learn how to deal with and engage in politics.
Chapter 3 concerns Implementation and Enforcement Issues in Preserving Wildlife. It opens with a description of how weak or non-existent implementation of wildlife laws is a common worldwide problem ranging from small developing nations to the United States. I discuss how weak central government especially characterizes many developing countries and makes it impossible for their central governments to enforce wildlife policies. But then I discuss how even in the U.S., wildlife agencies like the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Bureau of Land Management face threats and terrorism and are often reluctant to take action against violators of wildlife policies—the Bundy cases in Nevada and Oregon are employed to illustrate these problems. I also illustrate how most wildlife agencies have very limited resources in comparison with the tasks they are supposed to achieve and that consequently delay and inaction over characterize implementation efforts. I also depict how wildlife management agencies need to contend with conflicting goals in their missions (e.g., U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management have both conservation goals but also “clients” such as lumber and extractive industries that make demands that conflict with their wildlife conservation goals.) Likewise, the chapter demonstrates how in both the U.S. and countries like China, wildlife policy runs counter to strong cultural norms these forces tend to result in non-enforcement of rules. The chapter illustrates how in the U.S. and other nations, judges are reluctant to take strong action against violators of restrictions. The chapter discusses how Federalism makes it difficult for national agencies to achieve conservation goals because they depend on the cooperation of subgovernments. I illustrate how the courts have played a key role in implementation in the U.S. but they can be overridden by political actions such as “Congressional riders.”
Chapter 4, The Development of U.S. Wildlife Policies and Legislation, examines the dynamics of public policy on wildlife conservation focusing on the United States. It describes how the ESA was able to be passed with virtually unanimous support due to unusual historical circumstances that are unlikely to be duplicated—potential opponents were not aware of the implications of the law. It goes on to describe the intricacies of building coalitions to support wildlife conservation. It demonstrates how in order to pass conservation legislation that bills have multiple and often vague goals so that disparate groups join together to form a winning coalition. It illustrates this with the example in which national forest land was created with language that masked the fact that hunting would be allowed in order to get the hunting constituency in support of the legislation. The power of institutions such as Congressional committees to block or support wildlife conservation is also illustrated with cases. Next the role of public opinion versus the power of interest groups are explored with reference to conservation legislation. The impact of Federalism on wildlife conservation is illustrated with examples contrasting popular support in states like Alaska as indicated by votes against airborne killing of wolves versus the power of state institutions such as state wildlife departments and commissions which strongly favor their traditional constituencies such as hunters. Next, detailed descriptions are provided of attempts to use methods to get opposing coalitions (e.g., conservationists versus developers) to compromise such as through “stakeholder” groups. I provide detailed examples of negotiations involved in such attempts at collaboration and note how conservation organizations split over such compromise efforts with more radical groups such as Earth First rejecting this approach. The chapter ends with description of the role of Federal courts in policymaking along with occasional overriding of the courts via Congressional riders.
Chapter 5 concerns Charismatic Animals, Carnivores, and the Politics of Wildlife. It discusses what characteristics lead wildlife to be viewed as charismatic and the consequences of people’s attraction to such charismatic species. The impacts of the biases of humans are described such as favoring vertebrates, mammals, surface fish and game animals and fish. The effects of charisma on the implementation of the Endangered Species Act and its protection of species and expenditures on critical habitat are described. I discuss a key variable--whether a species has one or more interest groups devoted to it in regards to the extent to which it is researched as well as protected. The case of wild horses is detailed as exemplifying the impact of charisma on wildlife conservation and its negative effects on other species. A major part of the chapter is devoted to carnivores such as wolves, grizzlies, crocodiles, and sharks and human perceptions of them. I employ the term “negative charisma” to denote species about which many humans have irrational fears and hatred that go well beyond any rational cost-benefit calculation of the threats and losses humans experience from the species. I provide extended coverage to wolves which are a classic case of a species which many people view as attractively charismatic while others view as negatively charismatic. The impact of these perceptions are conservation are explored such as the hypothesis employed by the USFWS that holds that wolves should be allowed to be killed “to make them more acceptable” to humans. I discuss the “paradox of fear” with respect to species like polar bears, grizzlies, and wolves—people are attracted to a species that is capable of killing them and provide description of how the USFWS employs “judicial-like” proceedings to determine if a human-killing bear should be executed. I review the literature concerning the positive impacts of predators on ecosystems such as the trophic cascade hypothesis. Next I cover the “difficult politics of charismatic wildlife” with special attention to the difficulty of reaching compromises over the existence and threats of species like wolves to groups such as ranchers and hunters. I provide a detailed case study of the attempt to restore Mexican wolves which has lasted more than two decades and is still very much at risk due to the opposition of ranchers. I provide further description of attempts to compromise such as payments for damages caused by wolves and other carnivores and their limited success. I note throughout the chapter the discrepancy between general attitudes of the public which are much in favor acceptance of carnivores such as wolves and grizzlies even in the most conservative states and the actions of these states taken to reduce the numbers of these animals. This discrepancy illustrates a basic principle of wildlife politics: a small well-organized group that opposes species like wolves due to losses and fears due to the species can dominate the policy of states despite the support of the general populace because they control key institutions of state government.
Chapter 6 provides a detailed discussion of The ESA: Evaluation and Politics. It discusses thoroughly controversies over the effectiveness of the ESA. I cover the debates over measures to be used in assessing its impact such as the number of species recovered—the measure favored by its conservative critics that are rejected by its supporters. I also discuss limitations and weaknesses of the ESA such as its focus on individual species rather than ecosystems. I go on to discuss how even though supporters admit the weaknesses of the 1973 law, they have been unable to update it because there is no winning consensus on changes that has the support of a winning coalition—conservatives demand changes that would weaken the law’s “macho” elements (e.g., its rejection of any cost-benefit analysis criterion to determine if a species should be saved and its allowing citizen lawsuits). The costs and benefits of the ESA are analyzed such as costs to farmers and developers forced to protect species versus evidence that conservation measures have brought many economic and other benefits to communities that are near protected areas. I provide detailed discussion and illustration of the, in effect, modification of the ESA into an “incentive-based” rather than prescriptive law with the movement to habitat conservation plans and other incentive-based tools used by the USFWS. I discuss both positive assessments of this movement as well as criticisms by some environmentalists who view these compromises as “sell-outs.” The central role of the Federal courts in regard to the ESA are also explored. Finally, the chapter examines some examples of habitat conservation plans and raises the key issue of the need to monitor the success of these agreements.
Chapter 7 discusses Comparative Wildlife Politics. It begins with a study of similarities and differences in wildlife conservation politics of advanced countries. For example, it compares the U.S. and Canada which differ significantly on the role of subgovernments—it is much stronger in Canada and the Canadian Species At Risk law does not provide for citizen-initiated suits—the Canadian anti-conservation coalition learned about the implications of the U.S. ESA and thus their law is significantly less “macho.” Other comparisons are made such as between Sweden and Norway with Sweden being much more tolerant of carnivores such as wolves and bears. The chapter then proceeds to discuss wildlife conservation in developing nations. A consistent difference is the weakness of central governments in most of these countries which lack the resources and political will to implement conservation policies. I explore how customs and values also affect wildlife conservation—for example, using the example of the Maasai whose pastoral lifestyle has allowed wildlife to survive. Other customs such as Chinese traditional medicine that threatens elephants and other species are also detailed. A major portion of the chapter reviews community-based natural resources management efforts in Africa and Asia. It provides detailed case studies of successes and failures of these efforts and how politics affects them such as the reluctance of national governments to decentralize wildlife conservation policy and the revenues derived from ecotourism and hunting to local levels. It also shows how the quality of governance and transparency affect success. It explores factors which differentiate wildlife conservation in advanced countries from developing such as the importance of non-governmental organizations and foreign countries that play an important role in conservation efforts in many developing countries.
Chapter 8 describes International Wildlife Politics beginning with a discussion of the forces making wildlife politics increasingly international such as global markets and illegal trafficking and fishing. It describes the efforts of CITES and other international organizations dedicated to wildlife conservation. It has several case studies that illustrate the difficulties of stopping illegal fishing and trafficking of wildlife such as the dependence on the limited resources committed by individual nations to the enforcement of CITES and other international regulations. It describes how some of the major successful actions against illegal trade have been the result of threatened penalties by the U.S. and other countries. Especially difficult cases such as ivory are illustrated in depth along with the debate between those who believe that bans are the most effective way to control illegal wildlife trade while some advocate allowing the sale of ivory with the argument that it will provide incentives to landowners to protect species. The effects of privatization of wildlife ranches in countries such as South Africa are described. The cases of elephants and crocodiles are analyzed. The chapter proceeds to provide details of whaling treaties and the International Whaling Commission. It provides in depth analysis of the struggles between anti-whaling nations, conservation NGO’s, and whaling nations such as Japan and Norway. It portrays the difficulty of trying to reach compromises based on the “best available science” when there are underlying disagreements on values. It also describes the relationship between wars (both within and between nations) on wildlife.
Chapter 9 discusses in depth issues pertaining to Wildlife Politics, Values and Ethics. A major theme is that although many contentious wildlife issues are posed as concerning economics (e.g., how much is lost versus gained by preserving species like wolves), the underlying issues in debates concern conflicts between values and priorities among values. It draws on various ethical works concerning animals and wildlife and cites the point that through time ethics have progressed from very narrow and anthropocentric value schemes focusing on human interests to very broad, universal ethical principles that find value in all species and biodiversity. It then goes on to provide detailed illustrations of how clashes over values characterize much of wildlife politics such as conflicts over invasive species which have been the bete noir of traditional conservationists but this opposition to all invasive species is being challenged by some “new conservationists.” Several cases are discussed such as conflicts over deer, mute swans, and gray squirrels among others. It next discusses how humans sometimes try to draw “lines” between species such as to give special protections to wildlife that are close to humans (e.g., apes) or exhibit human-like intelligence (e.g., dolphins). The impact of religions on attitudes towards wildlife are discussed with contrasts drawn between Christianity and eastern religions. A major section explores the conflict over consumptive uses of wildlife. How should the values of humans affected by protections for wildlife (e.g., whalers and lumber employees living near spotted owls) versus those of the wildlife species. Various ethical theories and principles are explored that have been developed to support consumptive uses or promote preservation of species such as “a “safe minimum standard rule” that a species be preserved “if the costs are bearable,” thus putting “the burden of proof” on those who would eliminate the species. Next the important dilemma of potential conflicts between preserving wildlife (especially in developing nations) and the poor who live nearby the wildlife are discussed as a value issue. The attempts to develop compromise solutions such as CBNRM and wedding conservation to development efforts are discussed. Conflicts between species are discussed such as barred versus spotted owls, loggerhead shrikes versus island foxes, bighorn sheep versus mountain lions and several others are used to illustrate how values and politics affect wildlife conservation policy. The chapter closes with a discussion of the concept of “sustainability” and the complexities of applying this principle to wildlife conservation.
Chapter 10 concerns Hunting and Wildlife Politics. It discusses the complexities of the relationship between hunters and wildlife conservation. It reviews data concerning the significant numbers of hunters that exist, though noting that there has been an overall decline in the percentage of U.S. citizens who hunt and the number of people who like to watch wildlife (including hunters) and spend money on this activity is much larger. However, it points to the continued powerful political strength of hunters and anglers that persists even as their percentage in the population declines. It reviews their strong control over the policies of most state wildlife conservation departments (significantly often labeled as “game departments”) that result in large part from funding arrangements for these departments that depend largely on license fees for hunters and fishers. It reviews how states are often employing significant resources to recruit young hunters in order to fight the decline of their portion of the population. It reveals political conflicts between hunters and conservationists such as efforts to broaden the funding basis of departments and attempts to ban certain types of hunting (e.g., use of baiting, dogs, etc.). It also notes that hunters-anglers have often been a crucial part of the conservation coalition such as advocating on behalf of public lands and against development that threats important fishing or hunting areas. It discusses ethical issues that differentiate the hunting group, contrasting hunters (often the wealthier) who believe in ethics of fair chase and who criticize “slob hunters” versus those who critique “snob hunters” such as President Andrew Jackson. It discusses the “ecological costs and benefits” of hunting and angling on wildlife such as affecting change in the nature of species due to their preference for certain characteristics (e.g., males over females, big tusks versus small tusks, etc.). It discusses how though hunting in the U.S. has been associated with public lands that there is a fast-growing trend towards privatized hunting on private ranches and it discusses the potential ecological implications of these movement.
Chapter 11 discusses Tourism: Good or Bad for Conservation of Wildlife? The chapter opens with discussion of how tourism is generally viewed as a “non-consumptive” alternative to hunting and fishing that will not harm wildlife. But I discuss some examples of how tourism, even ecotourism that is supposed to leave “no tracks,” can also disturb and harm wildlife and their habitat such as through disturbance to their mating and other behaviors, feeding them, and making the animals unafraid of humans which makes them more susceptible to poachers. On the other hand, the chapter details the huge expenditures made for wildlife viewing that have resulted in political support preservation of habitat that otherwise may have vanished to development. It points out that in developing countries, foreign tourism generally requires political stability. It reviews cases in South America where tourism has provided some protection for wildlife (e.g., turtles) that have previously been sacrificed to loggers and poachers. Data is provided about the economic benefits to several African countries where tourism is often a major source of foreign currencies which is beneficial to their economies. It details how ocean wildlife have becomes increasingly popular and economically beneficial including not only whale-watching but also for species as manta rays and corals. The importance of charismatic wildlife to individual countries such as pandas are also described. The chapter also details how there can be conflicts between hunting and ecotourism. The chapter details some of the specific downsides of ecotourism and how current technology such as radar to detect fish and snowmobiles have made it impossible for wildlife to escape—there is no place they can hide. It documents how apparently minor acts by humans such as walking on beaches and cross-country skiing can have harmful impacts on wildlife and biodiversity. It discusses how both governmental action and preventive measures by those responsible for the tourism must be taken to avoid the negative impacts.
Chapter 12 Conclusion begins by reviewing the major generalizations that can be made across two or more nations concerning wildlife politics. The most elementary finding is that wildlife are important issue in politics of all nations ranging from the least to most developed. Moreover, there has been a consistent trend towards wildlife conservation becoming a more salient political issues through time in part due to the seemingly inexorable threats to wildlife species. The consistently strong emotional attachment of humans, especially to charismatic wildlife (either positive or negative charisma) is also common throughout nations and has made wildlife politics contentious with compromises difficult to achieve. The chapter reviews the utility of each of the sets of concepts introduced in Chapter 1. Time factors have proven important in understanding differences in the wildlife politics between nations such as the U.S. and Canada. Markets and market incentives have been fundamental in explaining how many species have been threatened as markets become global thus undermining “sustainable” hunting and fishing that characterized previous eras. However, it also describes how attempts are being made to make use of market incentives (PES) to provide humans incentives to preserve species though the efficacy of these approaches remains to be proven. Implementation problems characterize wildlife conservation efforts throughout the world. Interest group politics have great impact on wildlife conservation but the book shows that alliances between these interest groups can be complex and do not represent a simple right-left continuum. Political institutions are important to understand wildlife politics especially in advanced industrialized countries where legislative bodies and subgovernmental organization make and enforce conservation policies. It points out that scientific knowledge has become a powerful interest group asset especially in countries like the U.S. with a law that mandates the use of the best available science—indeed, science is more important than traditional assets such as numbers and money in such cases. The Advocacy Coalition Framework provides useful insights to understanding conflict and compromise between opposing coalitions. Organizational theory is extremely useful in understanding how agencies vested with the responsibility for wildlife conservation must negotiate difficult political terrains since their “direct clientele” wildlife cannot advocate themselves so these agencies tend to act in a “meek” manner compared with agencies that have human clients. Federalism is important in many nations and one of the commonalities of wildlife politics concerns the tensions between national interests and local interests of humans who live near major wildlife protected areas. Elections care shown to have major impacts on wildlife conservation. One of the factors omitted in Chapter 1 but discovered to be important is the support of strong leaders for wildlife conservation with cases cited in which leaders in Chile, Russia, India, Romania, and the U.S. all having major impacts. Wildlife politics is becoming increasingly international but international organizations such as CITES and the International Whaling Commission have serious limitations in their ability to achieve compromise and consensus. As human populations and development continue to grow and dominate the landscape, the best hope for wildlife conservation depends on the conversion of human attitudes to a less dominating and consumptive ethic. The chapter ends by revisiting the curious struggle between new and traditional conservationists in the U.S. and between optimism and pessimism. New conservationists posit that the gloomy outlook of traditional conservationists can undermine efforts to achieve change and they have a different take on developments such as invasive species and view human impacts on wildlife in a much more positive light with an emphasis on the use of technology to achieve “more biodiversity.” The chapter returns to look at several major international studies of wildlife trends that have found mainly troubling trends. I also end the chapter with a look at U.S. politics and cite the many Republican attacks on the Endangered Species Act as raising significant concerns about what will happen to this law if a Republican president were to be elected with a Republican Congress. Of course, since this chapter was written, that is exactly what happened with the victory of Donald Trump and Republican control of both the House and the Senate. I am now continually updating my discussion of wildlife politics concerning the Endangered Species Act plus other wildlife politics around the world at the following website: WildlifePolitics.org I invite readers to participate in its BLOG that is dedicated to the discussion of wildlife politics worldwide.
Table of Contents
Preface. 6
Chapter 1: An introduction to wildlife politics. 7
Basic constraining variables: The context of wildlife policy. 8
Concepts and frameworks for understanding wildlife politics. 14
“New” versus traditional conservation. 25
Literature on politics and wildlife. 26
Conclusion. 27
Plan for the book. 28
Chapter 2: Science and the protection of wildlife. 29
Scientific explanations. 29
Disagreements among researchers. 31
Science and the dispute between new and traditional conservationists. 32
Underlying goals and values. 34
Probabilities, uncertainties and costs versus benefits. 35
The complexity of science. 39
Data availability and quality. 41
Scientific models and assumptions. 44
Sound versus “junk science”. 46
Science, contentious issues, and peer review.. 49
The role of scientists. 50
Decisive impacts of science. 52
Conclusion. 53
Chapter 3: Implementation and enforcement issues in preserving wildlife. 55
Lax enforcement worldwide problem.. 56
Weak government and weak implementation. 58
Threats to government workers and conservationists. 58
Delays in acting. 61
Inadequate resources. 62
Conflicting goals and powerful opposing forces. 64
Social customs versus enforcement 66
Legal penalties weak. 66
Federalism and enforcement 67
The courts and enforcement 68
Congressional riders. 70
Conclusion. 70
Chapter 4: The development of U.S. wildlife policies and legislation. 72
How the ESA was passed. 72
Developing winning coalitions: Multiple and vague goals. 75
The effects of institutionalism.. 75
Public opinion versus organized interest groups. 76
Disasters and wildlife policy. 78
Federalism and wildlife policy. 78
Coalitions and compromise. 80
Riders versus ESA.. 88
Conclusion. 88
Chapter 5: Charismatic animals, carnivores, and the politics of wildlife. 90
What animals are charismatic?. 90
Carnivores and negative charisma. 96
The “kill wolves to make them more acceptable” hypothesis. 100
The paradox of fear 107
Positive impacts of predators. 110
The difficult politics of charismatic wildlife. 111
Examples of public participation: The case of Mexican wolf reintroduction. 112
Mechanisms to seek acceptable compromises: 114
Conclusion. 117
Chapter 6: The ESA: Evaluation and politics. 121
Controversies over effectiveness. 122
Politics and ESA.. 128
The costs and benefits of the ESA.. 135
Negotiation and the ESA: HCP, CCA, and other “incentive” policies for conservation. 139
The courts and ESA.. 145
Implementation, monitoring, and outcome evaluation issues. 149
Conclusion. 152
Chapter 7: Comparative wildlife politics. 155
U.S. wildlife politics comparisons with other developed nations. 155
The politics of wildlife in developing countries. 160
Community-based natural resources management and politics. 165
Conclusion. 180
Chapter 8: International wildlife politics. 183
Why wildlife politics has become increasingly international 183
Controlling illegal wildlife traffic. 187
The politics of whaling treaties. 195
War and its effects on wildlife. 199
Conclusions. 201
Chapter 9: Wildlife politics, values and ethics. 203
Introduction. 203
Values and invasive species. 205
Drawing lines. 208
Values, place, and religion. 211
Values and the consumptive uses of wildlife. 212
Preserving endangered species and the welfare of the poor 217
Values and conflicts between species. 218
Economic interests versus wildlife preservation. 221
Sustainability: The new value criterion?. 222
Conclusion. 224
Chapter 10: Hunting and wildlife politics. 225
Introduction. 225
Ethics and hunting. 226
Hunters and conservationists. 228
The political power of hunters. 229
Ecological benefits and costs of hunting. 232
Conclusion. 237
Chapter 11: Tourism: Good or bad for conservation of wildlife?. 239
The development of ecotourism.. 239
The value of ecotourism to developing countries. 241
Hunting and ecotourism: Are they compatible?. 243
Advantages and disadvantages of tourism to wildlife conservation. 245
Conclusion. 248
Chapter 12: Conclusion. 249
Summary. 249
The best of times or the worst of times?. 255
Chapter 1 References. 260
Chapter 2 Reference. 272
Chapter 3 References. 285
Chapter 4 References. 294
Chapter 5 References. 301
Chapter 6 References. 319
Chapter 7 References. 333
Chapter 8 References. 346
Chapter 9 References. 357
Chapter 10 References. 370
Chapter 11 References. 380
Chapter 12 References. 386
Index. 390
Chapter descriptions:
Chapter 1 provides An Introduction to Wildlife Politics. It gives a broad overview of wildlife conservation policy. It discusses key variables that constrain wildlife policy and politics such as habitat size and richness, human populations and development. Any attempt to deal preserve wildlife must deal with these forces. Secondly, it points out how human customs, attitudes and values affect wildlife policy. Third, the adaptability of species (and their attractiveness to humans) affects their ability to cope with a human-dominated world. Fourth, technology’s impact on wildlife is discussed both negative (e.g., development of hunting-fishing technology) as well as some emerging technologies (e.g., ability to drones to detect poaching) that may be helpful in the future. The growth of worldwide markets for wildlife is another basic development which threatens wildlife. Wildlife conservation involves international politics not only because many species cross national lines but due to trade and illegal trafficking of wildlife and international treaties and organizations are attempting to deal with these threats raised by humans and markets. Chapter 1 proceeds to discuss conceptual frameworks that are useful for understanding wildlife politics. First, there are “time factors” such as policy cycles, media attention, and the occurrence of disasters that influence attention (and sometimes indifference) to wildlife issues. Second, market incentives are now being explored as a method to assist wildlife conservation such as programs employing “Payments for Environmental Services” though they must cope with global market forces that run counter to wildlife preservation. A third framework concerns studies of policy implementation due to the fact that research shows that the passage of laws often do not lead to the change desired—they are many “paper laws.” A fourth set of concepts involves interest groups and related concepts such as “subgovernments” that are influential in wildlife policymaking both in advanced and developing countries. These groups and institutional forces can overwhelm even powerful executives who want to preserve wildlife. Fifth, the advocacy coalition framework provides useful understanding of the dynamics within coalitions and between opposing coalitions in the wildlife conservation arena. Sixth, organizational theory is useful to understand the behaviors of organizations like the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The Forest Service, and Bureau of Land Management which have limited resources and must deal with powerful constituencies that are at loggerheads with each other. Seventh, it is important to understand Federalism which structures not only the U.S. conservation policymaking but that of many other countries because interest groups dominate subgovernmental institutions (e.g., wildlife policymaking bodies in states in the U.S., provinces in Canada). Eighth, the courts are especially important in countries like the U.S. where they have sometimes taken over wildlife management but also play a role even in countries like China where they are responsible for punishing individuals and organizations that violate wildlife laws. Ninth, elections and science are the forces that can lead to change in wildlife policies—many important national laws and international treaties purport to rely on the “best science available” and thus learning from science can bring about change.
Chapter 2 concerns Science and the Protection of Wildlife. It focuses on the role of science in wildlife conservation policymaking.
Many national (e.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) and international (e.g., CITES, international whaling commission) bodies purport to follow the “best science available” in making their decisions. I discuss how practitioner groups such as the fishing industry and hunters often dispute the validity of scientific knowledge concerning threats to endangered species and how the movement to “stakeholder” decision-making demands that local, practitioner knowledge be given weight. I also provide accounts of disputes between scientific researchers that can result from differing methods and assumptions such as the impact of wolves and grizzlies on game species. Furthermore, I document how values held by policymakers influence research results such as the area (e.g., how wide should be the area in which endangered species are protected) and the length of time and degree of confidence that should be required in determining the minimum desired populations of endangered species. I discuss disputes over science that occur within the conservation coalition such as between “new” and traditional wildlife conservationists. I illustrate how uncertainty due to lack of complete data often exist about many species which forces policymakers to search for non-empirical decision rules such as “err on the side of caution” when making decisions that could lead to the extinction of species. The chapter also discusses the complexity of science and how multiple causes are often at work over issues in dispute (e.g., the impact of predators on reducing game or the benefits of preserving apex predators) and policymakers often focus on a single cause due to its political popularity (e.g., blaming predators for reduction in game numbers rather than other causes such as development, road-building, climate change, etc.) Cases are discussed in which researchers employ sophisticated models and projections that are based on assumptions and consequently conflicting conclusions are reached by different researchers. Peer review is supposed to be the “sine quo non” that distinguishes true science but the chapter provides examples of how anonymous peer review is difficult to employ due to the small universe of experts on specific species. The chapter illustrates cases in which opposing sides often characterize each other’s research as “junk science.” It also provides case studies of the difficult role scientists play when they try to influence policymaking—they must learn how to deal with and engage in politics.
Chapter 3 concerns Implementation and Enforcement Issues in Preserving Wildlife. It opens with a description of how weak or non-existent implementation of wildlife laws is a common worldwide problem ranging from small developing nations to the United States. I discuss how weak central government especially characterizes many developing countries and makes it impossible for their central governments to enforce wildlife policies. But then I discuss how even in the U.S., wildlife agencies like the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Bureau of Land Management face threats and terrorism and are often reluctant to take action against violators of wildlife policies—the Bundy cases in Nevada and Oregon are employed to illustrate these problems. I also illustrate how most wildlife agencies have very limited resources in comparison with the tasks they are supposed to achieve and that consequently delay and inaction over characterize implementation efforts. I also depict how wildlife management agencies need to contend with conflicting goals in their missions (e.g., U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management have both conservation goals but also “clients” such as lumber and extractive industries that make demands that conflict with their wildlife conservation goals.) Likewise, the chapter demonstrates how in both the U.S. and countries like China, wildlife policy runs counter to strong cultural norms these forces tend to result in non-enforcement of rules. The chapter illustrates how in the U.S. and other nations, judges are reluctant to take strong action against violators of restrictions. The chapter discusses how Federalism makes it difficult for national agencies to achieve conservation goals because they depend on the cooperation of subgovernments. I illustrate how the courts have played a key role in implementation in the U.S. but they can be overridden by political actions such as “Congressional riders.”
Chapter 4, The Development of U.S. Wildlife Policies and Legislation, examines the dynamics of public policy on wildlife conservation focusing on the United States. It describes how the ESA was able to be passed with virtually unanimous support due to unusual historical circumstances that are unlikely to be duplicated—potential opponents were not aware of the implications of the law. It goes on to describe the intricacies of building coalitions to support wildlife conservation. It demonstrates how in order to pass conservation legislation that bills have multiple and often vague goals so that disparate groups join together to form a winning coalition. It illustrates this with the example in which national forest land was created with language that masked the fact that hunting would be allowed in order to get the hunting constituency in support of the legislation. The power of institutions such as Congressional committees to block or support wildlife conservation is also illustrated with cases. Next the role of public opinion versus the power of interest groups are explored with reference to conservation legislation. The impact of Federalism on wildlife conservation is illustrated with examples contrasting popular support in states like Alaska as indicated by votes against airborne killing of wolves versus the power of state institutions such as state wildlife departments and commissions which strongly favor their traditional constituencies such as hunters. Next, detailed descriptions are provided of attempts to use methods to get opposing coalitions (e.g., conservationists versus developers) to compromise such as through “stakeholder” groups. I provide detailed examples of negotiations involved in such attempts at collaboration and note how conservation organizations split over such compromise efforts with more radical groups such as Earth First rejecting this approach. The chapter ends with description of the role of Federal courts in policymaking along with occasional overriding of the courts via Congressional riders.
Chapter 5 concerns Charismatic Animals, Carnivores, and the Politics of Wildlife. It discusses what characteristics lead wildlife to be viewed as charismatic and the consequences of people’s attraction to such charismatic species. The impacts of the biases of humans are described such as favoring vertebrates, mammals, surface fish and game animals and fish. The effects of charisma on the implementation of the Endangered Species Act and its protection of species and expenditures on critical habitat are described. I discuss a key variable--whether a species has one or more interest groups devoted to it in regards to the extent to which it is researched as well as protected. The case of wild horses is detailed as exemplifying the impact of charisma on wildlife conservation and its negative effects on other species. A major part of the chapter is devoted to carnivores such as wolves, grizzlies, crocodiles, and sharks and human perceptions of them. I employ the term “negative charisma” to denote species about which many humans have irrational fears and hatred that go well beyond any rational cost-benefit calculation of the threats and losses humans experience from the species. I provide extended coverage to wolves which are a classic case of a species which many people view as attractively charismatic while others view as negatively charismatic. The impact of these perceptions are conservation are explored such as the hypothesis employed by the USFWS that holds that wolves should be allowed to be killed “to make them more acceptable” to humans. I discuss the “paradox of fear” with respect to species like polar bears, grizzlies, and wolves—people are attracted to a species that is capable of killing them and provide description of how the USFWS employs “judicial-like” proceedings to determine if a human-killing bear should be executed. I review the literature concerning the positive impacts of predators on ecosystems such as the trophic cascade hypothesis. Next I cover the “difficult politics of charismatic wildlife” with special attention to the difficulty of reaching compromises over the existence and threats of species like wolves to groups such as ranchers and hunters. I provide a detailed case study of the attempt to restore Mexican wolves which has lasted more than two decades and is still very much at risk due to the opposition of ranchers. I provide further description of attempts to compromise such as payments for damages caused by wolves and other carnivores and their limited success. I note throughout the chapter the discrepancy between general attitudes of the public which are much in favor acceptance of carnivores such as wolves and grizzlies even in the most conservative states and the actions of these states taken to reduce the numbers of these animals. This discrepancy illustrates a basic principle of wildlife politics: a small well-organized group that opposes species like wolves due to losses and fears due to the species can dominate the policy of states despite the support of the general populace because they control key institutions of state government.
Chapter 6 provides a detailed discussion of The ESA: Evaluation and Politics. It discusses thoroughly controversies over the effectiveness of the ESA. I cover the debates over measures to be used in assessing its impact such as the number of species recovered—the measure favored by its conservative critics that are rejected by its supporters. I also discuss limitations and weaknesses of the ESA such as its focus on individual species rather than ecosystems. I go on to discuss how even though supporters admit the weaknesses of the 1973 law, they have been unable to update it because there is no winning consensus on changes that has the support of a winning coalition—conservatives demand changes that would weaken the law’s “macho” elements (e.g., its rejection of any cost-benefit analysis criterion to determine if a species should be saved and its allowing citizen lawsuits). The costs and benefits of the ESA are analyzed such as costs to farmers and developers forced to protect species versus evidence that conservation measures have brought many economic and other benefits to communities that are near protected areas. I provide detailed discussion and illustration of the, in effect, modification of the ESA into an “incentive-based” rather than prescriptive law with the movement to habitat conservation plans and other incentive-based tools used by the USFWS. I discuss both positive assessments of this movement as well as criticisms by some environmentalists who view these compromises as “sell-outs.” The central role of the Federal courts in regard to the ESA are also explored. Finally, the chapter examines some examples of habitat conservation plans and raises the key issue of the need to monitor the success of these agreements.
Chapter 7 discusses Comparative Wildlife Politics. It begins with a study of similarities and differences in wildlife conservation politics of advanced countries. For example, it compares the U.S. and Canada which differ significantly on the role of subgovernments—it is much stronger in Canada and the Canadian Species At Risk law does not provide for citizen-initiated suits—the Canadian anti-conservation coalition learned about the implications of the U.S. ESA and thus their law is significantly less “macho.” Other comparisons are made such as between Sweden and Norway with Sweden being much more tolerant of carnivores such as wolves and bears. The chapter then proceeds to discuss wildlife conservation in developing nations. A consistent difference is the weakness of central governments in most of these countries which lack the resources and political will to implement conservation policies. I explore how customs and values also affect wildlife conservation—for example, using the example of the Maasai whose pastoral lifestyle has allowed wildlife to survive. Other customs such as Chinese traditional medicine that threatens elephants and other species are also detailed. A major portion of the chapter reviews community-based natural resources management efforts in Africa and Asia. It provides detailed case studies of successes and failures of these efforts and how politics affects them such as the reluctance of national governments to decentralize wildlife conservation policy and the revenues derived from ecotourism and hunting to local levels. It also shows how the quality of governance and transparency affect success. It explores factors which differentiate wildlife conservation in advanced countries from developing such as the importance of non-governmental organizations and foreign countries that play an important role in conservation efforts in many developing countries.
Chapter 8 describes International Wildlife Politics beginning with a discussion of the forces making wildlife politics increasingly international such as global markets and illegal trafficking and fishing. It describes the efforts of CITES and other international organizations dedicated to wildlife conservation. It has several case studies that illustrate the difficulties of stopping illegal fishing and trafficking of wildlife such as the dependence on the limited resources committed by individual nations to the enforcement of CITES and other international regulations. It describes how some of the major successful actions against illegal trade have been the result of threatened penalties by the U.S. and other countries. Especially difficult cases such as ivory are illustrated in depth along with the debate between those who believe that bans are the most effective way to control illegal wildlife trade while some advocate allowing the sale of ivory with the argument that it will provide incentives to landowners to protect species. The effects of privatization of wildlife ranches in countries such as South Africa are described. The cases of elephants and crocodiles are analyzed. The chapter proceeds to provide details of whaling treaties and the International Whaling Commission. It provides in depth analysis of the struggles between anti-whaling nations, conservation NGO’s, and whaling nations such as Japan and Norway. It portrays the difficulty of trying to reach compromises based on the “best available science” when there are underlying disagreements on values. It also describes the relationship between wars (both within and between nations) on wildlife.
Chapter 9 discusses in depth issues pertaining to Wildlife Politics, Values and Ethics. A major theme is that although many contentious wildlife issues are posed as concerning economics (e.g., how much is lost versus gained by preserving species like wolves), the underlying issues in debates concern conflicts between values and priorities among values. It draws on various ethical works concerning animals and wildlife and cites the point that through time ethics have progressed from very narrow and anthropocentric value schemes focusing on human interests to very broad, universal ethical principles that find value in all species and biodiversity. It then goes on to provide detailed illustrations of how clashes over values characterize much of wildlife politics such as conflicts over invasive species which have been the bete noir of traditional conservationists but this opposition to all invasive species is being challenged by some “new conservationists.” Several cases are discussed such as conflicts over deer, mute swans, and gray squirrels among others. It next discusses how humans sometimes try to draw “lines” between species such as to give special protections to wildlife that are close to humans (e.g., apes) or exhibit human-like intelligence (e.g., dolphins). The impact of religions on attitudes towards wildlife are discussed with contrasts drawn between Christianity and eastern religions. A major section explores the conflict over consumptive uses of wildlife. How should the values of humans affected by protections for wildlife (e.g., whalers and lumber employees living near spotted owls) versus those of the wildlife species. Various ethical theories and principles are explored that have been developed to support consumptive uses or promote preservation of species such as “a “safe minimum standard rule” that a species be preserved “if the costs are bearable,” thus putting “the burden of proof” on those who would eliminate the species. Next the important dilemma of potential conflicts between preserving wildlife (especially in developing nations) and the poor who live nearby the wildlife are discussed as a value issue. The attempts to develop compromise solutions such as CBNRM and wedding conservation to development efforts are discussed. Conflicts between species are discussed such as barred versus spotted owls, loggerhead shrikes versus island foxes, bighorn sheep versus mountain lions and several others are used to illustrate how values and politics affect wildlife conservation policy. The chapter closes with a discussion of the concept of “sustainability” and the complexities of applying this principle to wildlife conservation.
Chapter 10 concerns Hunting and Wildlife Politics. It discusses the complexities of the relationship between hunters and wildlife conservation. It reviews data concerning the significant numbers of hunters that exist, though noting that there has been an overall decline in the percentage of U.S. citizens who hunt and the number of people who like to watch wildlife (including hunters) and spend money on this activity is much larger. However, it points to the continued powerful political strength of hunters and anglers that persists even as their percentage in the population declines. It reviews their strong control over the policies of most state wildlife conservation departments (significantly often labeled as “game departments”) that result in large part from funding arrangements for these departments that depend largely on license fees for hunters and fishers. It reviews how states are often employing significant resources to recruit young hunters in order to fight the decline of their portion of the population. It reveals political conflicts between hunters and conservationists such as efforts to broaden the funding basis of departments and attempts to ban certain types of hunting (e.g., use of baiting, dogs, etc.). It also notes that hunters-anglers have often been a crucial part of the conservation coalition such as advocating on behalf of public lands and against development that threats important fishing or hunting areas. It discusses ethical issues that differentiate the hunting group, contrasting hunters (often the wealthier) who believe in ethics of fair chase and who criticize “slob hunters” versus those who critique “snob hunters” such as President Andrew Jackson. It discusses the “ecological costs and benefits” of hunting and angling on wildlife such as affecting change in the nature of species due to their preference for certain characteristics (e.g., males over females, big tusks versus small tusks, etc.). It discusses how though hunting in the U.S. has been associated with public lands that there is a fast-growing trend towards privatized hunting on private ranches and it discusses the potential ecological implications of these movement.
Chapter 11 discusses Tourism: Good or Bad for Conservation of Wildlife? The chapter opens with discussion of how tourism is generally viewed as a “non-consumptive” alternative to hunting and fishing that will not harm wildlife. But I discuss some examples of how tourism, even ecotourism that is supposed to leave “no tracks,” can also disturb and harm wildlife and their habitat such as through disturbance to their mating and other behaviors, feeding them, and making the animals unafraid of humans which makes them more susceptible to poachers. On the other hand, the chapter details the huge expenditures made for wildlife viewing that have resulted in political support preservation of habitat that otherwise may have vanished to development. It points out that in developing countries, foreign tourism generally requires political stability. It reviews cases in South America where tourism has provided some protection for wildlife (e.g., turtles) that have previously been sacrificed to loggers and poachers. Data is provided about the economic benefits to several African countries where tourism is often a major source of foreign currencies which is beneficial to their economies. It details how ocean wildlife have becomes increasingly popular and economically beneficial including not only whale-watching but also for species as manta rays and corals. The importance of charismatic wildlife to individual countries such as pandas are also described. The chapter also details how there can be conflicts between hunting and ecotourism. The chapter details some of the specific downsides of ecotourism and how current technology such as radar to detect fish and snowmobiles have made it impossible for wildlife to escape—there is no place they can hide. It documents how apparently minor acts by humans such as walking on beaches and cross-country skiing can have harmful impacts on wildlife and biodiversity. It discusses how both governmental action and preventive measures by those responsible for the tourism must be taken to avoid the negative impacts.
Chapter 12 Conclusion begins by reviewing the major generalizations that can be made across two or more nations concerning wildlife politics. The most elementary finding is that wildlife are important issue in politics of all nations ranging from the least to most developed. Moreover, there has been a consistent trend towards wildlife conservation becoming a more salient political issues through time in part due to the seemingly inexorable threats to wildlife species. The consistently strong emotional attachment of humans, especially to charismatic wildlife (either positive or negative charisma) is also common throughout nations and has made wildlife politics contentious with compromises difficult to achieve. The chapter reviews the utility of each of the sets of concepts introduced in Chapter 1. Time factors have proven important in understanding differences in the wildlife politics between nations such as the U.S. and Canada. Markets and market incentives have been fundamental in explaining how many species have been threatened as markets become global thus undermining “sustainable” hunting and fishing that characterized previous eras. However, it also describes how attempts are being made to make use of market incentives (PES) to provide humans incentives to preserve species though the efficacy of these approaches remains to be proven. Implementation problems characterize wildlife conservation efforts throughout the world. Interest group politics have great impact on wildlife conservation but the book shows that alliances between these interest groups can be complex and do not represent a simple right-left continuum. Political institutions are important to understand wildlife politics especially in advanced industrialized countries where legislative bodies and subgovernmental organization make and enforce conservation policies. It points out that scientific knowledge has become a powerful interest group asset especially in countries like the U.S. with a law that mandates the use of the best available science—indeed, science is more important than traditional assets such as numbers and money in such cases. The Advocacy Coalition Framework provides useful insights to understanding conflict and compromise between opposing coalitions. Organizational theory is extremely useful in understanding how agencies vested with the responsibility for wildlife conservation must negotiate difficult political terrains since their “direct clientele” wildlife cannot advocate themselves so these agencies tend to act in a “meek” manner compared with agencies that have human clients. Federalism is important in many nations and one of the commonalities of wildlife politics concerns the tensions between national interests and local interests of humans who live near major wildlife protected areas. Elections care shown to have major impacts on wildlife conservation. One of the factors omitted in Chapter 1 but discovered to be important is the support of strong leaders for wildlife conservation with cases cited in which leaders in Chile, Russia, India, Romania, and the U.S. all having major impacts. Wildlife politics is becoming increasingly international but international organizations such as CITES and the International Whaling Commission have serious limitations in their ability to achieve compromise and consensus. As human populations and development continue to grow and dominate the landscape, the best hope for wildlife conservation depends on the conversion of human attitudes to a less dominating and consumptive ethic. The chapter ends by revisiting the curious struggle between new and traditional conservationists in the U.S. and between optimism and pessimism. New conservationists posit that the gloomy outlook of traditional conservationists can undermine efforts to achieve change and they have a different take on developments such as invasive species and view human impacts on wildlife in a much more positive light with an emphasis on the use of technology to achieve “more biodiversity.” The chapter returns to look at several major international studies of wildlife trends that have found mainly troubling trends. I also end the chapter with a look at U.S. politics and cite the many Republican attacks on the Endangered Species Act as raising significant concerns about what will happen to this law if a Republican president were to be elected with a Republican Congress. Of course, since this chapter was written, that is exactly what happened with the victory of Donald Trump and Republican control of both the House and the Senate. I am now continually updating my discussion of wildlife politics concerning the Endangered Species Act plus other wildlife politics around the world at the following website: WildlifePolitics.org I invite readers to participate in its BLOG that is dedicated to the discussion of wildlife politics worldwide.
Table of Contents
Preface. 6
Chapter 1: An introduction to wildlife politics. 7
Basic constraining variables: The context of wildlife policy. 8
Concepts and frameworks for understanding wildlife politics. 14
“New” versus traditional conservation. 25
Literature on politics and wildlife. 26
Conclusion. 27
Plan for the book. 28
Chapter 2: Science and the protection of wildlife. 29
Scientific explanations. 29
Disagreements among researchers. 31
Science and the dispute between new and traditional conservationists. 32
Underlying goals and values. 34
Probabilities, uncertainties and costs versus benefits. 35
The complexity of science. 39
Data availability and quality. 41
Scientific models and assumptions. 44
Sound versus “junk science”. 46
Science, contentious issues, and peer review.. 49
The role of scientists. 50
Decisive impacts of science. 52
Conclusion. 53
Chapter 3: Implementation and enforcement issues in preserving wildlife. 55
Lax enforcement worldwide problem.. 56
Weak government and weak implementation. 58
Threats to government workers and conservationists. 58
Delays in acting. 61
Inadequate resources. 62
Conflicting goals and powerful opposing forces. 64
Social customs versus enforcement 66
Legal penalties weak. 66
Federalism and enforcement 67
The courts and enforcement 68
Congressional riders. 70
Conclusion. 70
Chapter 4: The development of U.S. wildlife policies and legislation. 72
How the ESA was passed. 72
Developing winning coalitions: Multiple and vague goals. 75
The effects of institutionalism.. 75
Public opinion versus organized interest groups. 76
Disasters and wildlife policy. 78
Federalism and wildlife policy. 78
Coalitions and compromise. 80
Riders versus ESA.. 88
Conclusion. 88
Chapter 5: Charismatic animals, carnivores, and the politics of wildlife. 90
What animals are charismatic?. 90
Carnivores and negative charisma. 96
The “kill wolves to make them more acceptable” hypothesis. 100
The paradox of fear 107
Positive impacts of predators. 110
The difficult politics of charismatic wildlife. 111
Examples of public participation: The case of Mexican wolf reintroduction. 112
Mechanisms to seek acceptable compromises: 114
Conclusion. 117
Chapter 6: The ESA: Evaluation and politics. 121
Controversies over effectiveness. 122
Politics and ESA.. 128
The costs and benefits of the ESA.. 135
Negotiation and the ESA: HCP, CCA, and other “incentive” policies for conservation. 139
The courts and ESA.. 145
Implementation, monitoring, and outcome evaluation issues. 149
Conclusion. 152
Chapter 7: Comparative wildlife politics. 155
U.S. wildlife politics comparisons with other developed nations. 155
The politics of wildlife in developing countries. 160
Community-based natural resources management and politics. 165
Conclusion. 180
Chapter 8: International wildlife politics. 183
Why wildlife politics has become increasingly international 183
Controlling illegal wildlife traffic. 187
The politics of whaling treaties. 195
War and its effects on wildlife. 199
Conclusions. 201
Chapter 9: Wildlife politics, values and ethics. 203
Introduction. 203
Values and invasive species. 205
Drawing lines. 208
Values, place, and religion. 211
Values and the consumptive uses of wildlife. 212
Preserving endangered species and the welfare of the poor 217
Values and conflicts between species. 218
Economic interests versus wildlife preservation. 221
Sustainability: The new value criterion?. 222
Conclusion. 224
Chapter 10: Hunting and wildlife politics. 225
Introduction. 225
Ethics and hunting. 226
Hunters and conservationists. 228
The political power of hunters. 229
Ecological benefits and costs of hunting. 232
Conclusion. 237
Chapter 11: Tourism: Good or bad for conservation of wildlife?. 239
The development of ecotourism.. 239
The value of ecotourism to developing countries. 241
Hunting and ecotourism: Are they compatible?. 243
Advantages and disadvantages of tourism to wildlife conservation. 245
Conclusion. 248
Chapter 12: Conclusion. 249
Summary. 249
The best of times or the worst of times?. 255
Chapter 1 References. 260
Chapter 2 Reference. 272
Chapter 3 References. 285
Chapter 4 References. 294
Chapter 5 References. 301
Chapter 6 References. 319
Chapter 7 References. 333
Chapter 8 References. 346
Chapter 9 References. 357
Chapter 10 References. 370
Chapter 11 References. 380
Chapter 12 References. 386
Index. 390